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World tree

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the religious and mythological motif. For other uses, see <a href="World_Tree_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="World Tree (disambiguation)">World Tree (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

The world tree is a <a href="Motif_(narrative)" title="Motif (narrative)">motif</a> present in several religions and mythologies, particularly <a href="Indo-European_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European religion">Indo-European</a>, Siberian, and <a href="Native_American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American religion">Native American religions</a>. The world tree is represented as a colossal tree which supports the <a href="Heaven" title="Heaven">heavens</a>, thereby connecting the heavens, the terrestrial world, and, through its roots, the <a href="Underworld" title="Underworld">underworld</a>. It may also be strongly connected to the motif of the <a href="Tree_of_life" title="Tree of life">tree of life</a>, but it is the source of wisdom of the ages.

Specific world trees include <a href="%C3%89gig_%C3%A9r%C5%91_fa" title="Égig érő fa">Égig érő fa</a> in <a href="Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian mythology</a>, Ağaç Ana in <a href="Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turkic mythology</a>, Kenac' Car<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> in <a href="Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian mythology</a>, Modun in <a href="Mongol_mythology" title="Mongol mythology">Mongol mythology</a>, <a href="Yggdrasil" title="Yggdrasil">Yggdrasil</a> in <a href="Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a>, <a href="Irminsul" title="Irminsul">Irminsul</a> in <a href="Germanic_mythology" title="Germanic mythology">Germanic</a> mythology, the <a href="Oak" title="Oak">oak</a> in <a href="Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a>, <a href="Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a> and <a href="Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a>, Jianmu (<a href="Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 建木; <a href="Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: jiànmù) in <a href="Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">Chinese mythology</a>, and in <a href="Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Hindu mythology</a> the <a href="Ashvattha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashvattha">Ashvattha</a> (a <a href="Ficus_religiosa" title="Ficus religiosa">Ficus religiosa</a>).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_description">General description</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diffusion">Diffusion</h3></div>

Scholarship states that many <a href="Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasian</a> mythologies share the motif of the "world tree", "cosmic tree", or "Eagle and Serpent Tree".<a href="#cite_note-Annus2009-2">[2]</a> More specifically, it shows up in "Haitian, Finnish, Lithuanian, Hungarian, Indian, Chinese, Japanese, Norse, Siberian and northern Asian Shamanic folklore".<a href="#cite_note-Crews2003-3">[3]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tripartite_division_of_the_world">Tripartite division of the world</h3></div>

The World Tree is often identified with the Tree of Life,<a href="#cite_note-Lintrop2001-4">[4]</a> and also fulfills the role of an <a href="Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axis mundi</a>, that is, a centre or axis of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Toporov_1990_46–63_48-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crews2003-3">[3]</a> It is also located at the center of the world and represents order and harmony of the cosmos.<a href="#cite_note-lituanistika.lt-6">[6]</a> According to Loreta Senkute, each part of the tree corresponds to one of the three spheres of the world (treetops – heavens; trunk – middle world or earth; roots – underworld) and is also associated with a classical element (top part – <a href="Fire" title="Fire">fire</a>; middle part – <a href="Earth" title="Earth">earth</a>, soil, ground; bottom part – <a href="Water" title="Water">water</a>).<a href="#cite_note-lituanistika.lt-6">[6]</a>

Its branches are said to reach the skies and its roots to connect the human or earthly world with an underworld or subterranean realm. Because of this, the tree was worshipped as a mediator between Heavens and Earth.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> On the treetops are located the luminaries (<a href="Star" title="Star">stars</a>) and heavenly bodies,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> along with an eagle's nest; several species of birds perch among its branches; humans and animals of every kind live under its branches, and near the root is the dwelling place of snakes and every sort of reptiles.<a href="#cite_note-Straižys,_Vytautas_1997-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kuperjanov2002-10">[10]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motifs">Motifs</h3></div>

The imagery of the World Tree is sometimes associated with conferring immortality, either by a fruit that grows on it or by a springsource located nearby.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lintrop2001-4">[4]</a> As George Lechler also pointed out, in some descriptions this "water of life" may also flow from the roots of the tree.<a href="#cite_note-The_Tree_of_Life_in_Indo-European_a-12">[12]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Zoological_imagery">Zoological imagery</h4></div>

According to <a href="Vladimir_Toporov" title="Vladimir Toporov">Vladimir Toporov</a>, animal species are commonly distributed along the parts of the tree: between its roots, figure "chthonic animals", such as snakes and frogs, but he also mentions <a href="Aquatic_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic animals">aquatic animals</a> such as otters, beavers, and fishes, as well as dragons; the middle part of the tree is reserved for hoofed animals such as deer or elk (sometimes bees), and on the topmost part perches the "principal" bird, or a pair of birds sat on either side of the tree crown.<a href="#cite_note-Toporov_1990_46–63_48-5">[5]</a>

A bird perches atop its foliage, "often .... a winged mythical creature" that represents a heavenly realm.<a href="#cite_note-Annus,_Amar_2015._pp._289-290-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lintrop2001-4">[4]</a> The <a href="Eagle" title="Eagle">eagle</a> seems to be the most frequent bird, fulfilling the role of a creator or weather deity.<a href="#cite_note-Norelius2016-14">[14]</a> Its antipode is a snake or serpentine creature that crawls between the tree roots, being a "symbol of the underworld".<a href="#cite_note-Annus,_Amar_2015._pp._289-290-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lintrop2001-4">[4]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Similar_motifs">Similar motifs</h3></div>

The World Tree has also been compared to a World Pillar that appears in other traditions and functions as separator between the earth and the skies, upholding the latter.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Another representation akin to the World Tree is a separate World Mountain. However, in some stories, the world tree is located atop the world mountain, in a combination of both motifs.<a href="#cite_note-lituanistika.lt-6">[6]</a>

A conflict between a serpentine creature and a giant bird (an eagle) occurs in Eurasian mythologies: a hero kills the serpent that menaces a nest of little birds, and their mother repays the favor – a motif comparativist Julien d'Huy dates to the Paleolithic. A parallel story is attested in the traditions of the <a href="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">indigenous peoples of the Americas</a>, where the <a href="Thunderbird_(mythology)" title="Thunderbird (mythology)">thunderbird</a> is slotted into the role of the giant bird whose nest is menaced by a "snake-like water monster".<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relation_to_shamanism">Relation to shamanism</h3></div>

Romanian historian of religion, <a href="Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a>, in his monumental work <a href="Shamanism%3A_Archaic_Techniques_of_Ecstasy" title="Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy">Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy</a>, suggested that the world tree was an important element in <a href="Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shamanistic</a> worldview.<a href="#cite_note-Fournet2020-18">[18]</a> Also, according to him, "the giant bird ... hatches shamans in the branches of the World Tree".<a href="#cite_note-Fournet2020-18">[18]</a> Likewise, Roald Knutsen indicates the presence of the motif in <a href="Altaic_shamanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Altaic shamanism">Altaic shamanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Knutsen_Cultic_Symbols-19">[19]</a> Representations of the world tree are reported to be portrayed in <a href="Drum" title="Drum">drums</a> used in Siberian shamanistic practices.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>

Some species of birds (<a href="Eagle" title="Eagle">eagle</a>, <a href="Raven" title="Raven">raven</a>, <a href="Crane_(bird)" title="Crane (bird)">crane</a>, <a href="Loon" title="Loon">loon</a>, and <a href="Lark" title="Lark">lark</a>) are revered as mediators between worlds and also connected to the imagery of the world tree.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Another line of scholarship points to a "recurring theme" of the <a href="Owl" title="Owl">owl</a> as the mediator to the upper realm, and its counterpart, the snake, as the mediator to the lower regions of the cosmos.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>

Researcher Kristen Pearson mentions Northern Eurasian and Central Asian traditions wherein the World Tree is also associated with the <a href="Horse" title="Horse">horse</a> and with <a href="Deer_antlers" class="mw-redirect" title="Deer antlers">deer antlers</a> (which might resemble tree branches).<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_origins">Possible origins</h3></div>

Mircea Eliade proposed that the typical imagery of the world tree (bird at the top, snake at the root) "is presumably of Oriental origin".<a href="#cite_note-Fournet2020-18">[18]</a> Likewise, Roald Knutsen indicates a possible origin of the motif in <a href="Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and later diffusion into other regions and cultures.<a href="#cite_note-Knutsen_Cultic_Symbols-19">[19]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_specific_cultures">In specific cultures</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indigenous_American_cultures">Indigenous American cultures</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Mesoamerican_world_tree" title="Mesoamerican world tree">Mesoamerican world tree</a></div>

<ul><li>Among <a href="Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous</a> <a href="Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerican</a> cultures, the concept of "world trees" is a prevalent motif in Mesoamerican cosmologies and iconography. The <a href="Temple_of_the_Cross_Complex" title="Temple of the Cross Complex">Temple of the Cross Complex</a> at <a href="Palenque" title="Palenque">Palenque</a> contains one of the most studied examples of the world tree in architectural motifs of all Mayan ruins. World trees embodied the four cardinal directions, which represented also the fourfold nature of a central world tree, a symbolic <a href="Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axis mundi</a> connecting the planes of the Underworld and the sky with that of the terrestrial world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillerTaube1993186-24">[24]</a></li>

<li>Depictions of world trees, both in their directional and central aspects, are found in the art and traditions of cultures such as the <a href="Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a>, <a href="Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztec</a>, <a href="Izapa" title="Izapa">Izapan</a>, <a href="Mixtec" title="Mixtec">Mixtec</a>, <a href="Olmec" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec">Olmec</a>, and others, dating to at least the Mid/Late Formative periods of <a href="Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Mesoamerican chronology</a>. Among the Maya, the central world tree was conceived as, or represented by, a <a href="Ceiba" title="Ceiba">ceiba</a> tree, called yax imix che ('blue-green tree of abundance') by the Book of <a href="Chilam_Balam" title="Chilam Balam">Chilam Balam</a> of Chumayel.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> The trunk of the tree could also be represented by an upright <a href="Caiman" title="Caiman">caiman</a>, whose skin evokes the tree's spiny trunk.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillerTaube1993186-24">[24]</a> These depictions could also show birds perched atop the trees.<a href="#cite_note-Knowlton_&_Gabrielle_2010-26">[26]</a></li>

<li>A similarly named tree, yax cheel cab ('first tree of the world'), was reported by 17th-century priest Andrés de Avendaño to have been worshipped by the <a href="Itza_people" title="Itza people">Itzá</a> <a href="Mayan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayan people">Maya</a>. However, scholarship suggests that this worship derives from some form of cultural interaction between "pre-Hispanic iconography and [millenary] practices" and European traditions brought by the Hispanic colonization.<a href="#cite_note-Knowlton_&_Gabrielle_2010-26">[26]</a></li>

<li>Directional world trees are also associated with the four Yearbearers in <a href="Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">Mesoamerican calendars</a>, and the directional colors and deities. <a href="Mesoamerican_codices" title="Mesoamerican codices">Mesoamerican codices</a> which have this association outlined include the <a href="Dresden_Codex" title="Dresden Codex">Dresden</a>, <a href="Codex_Borgia" title="Codex Borgia">Borgia</a> and <a href="Codex_Fej%C3%A9rv%C3%A1ry-Mayer" title="Codex Fejérváry-Mayer">Fejérváry-Mayer</a> <a href="Codex" title="Codex">codices</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Knowlton_&_Gabrielle_2010-26">[26]</a> It is supposed that Mesoamerican sites and ceremonial centers frequently had actual trees planted at each of the four cardinal directions, representing the quadripartite concept.</li>

<li>World trees are frequently depicted with birds in their branches, and their roots extending into earth or water (sometimes atop a "water-monster", symbolic of the underworld).</li>

<li>The central world tree has also been interpreted as a representation of the band of the <a href="Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></li>

<li><a href="Izapa_Stela_5" title="Izapa Stela 5">Izapa Stela 5</a> contains a possible representation of a world tree.</li></ul>

A common theme in most indigenous cultures of the Americas is a concept of directionality (the horizontal and vertical planes), with the vertical dimension often being represented by a world tree. Some scholars have argued that the religious importance of the horizontal and vertical dimensions in many <a href="Animist" class="mw-redirect" title="Animist">animist</a> cultures may derive from the human body and the position it occupies in the world as it perceives the surrounding living world. Many Indigenous cultures of the Americas have similar cosmologies regarding the directionality and the world tree, however the type of tree representing the world tree depends on the surrounding environment. For many Indigenous American peoples located in more temperate regions for example, it is the <a href="Spruce" title="Spruce">spruce</a> rather than the ceiba that is the world tree; however the idea of cosmic directions combined with a concept of a tree uniting the directional planes is similar.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek_mythology">Greek mythology</h3></div>

Like in many other <a href="Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Indo-European cultures</a>, one tree species was considered the World Tree in some cosmogonical accounts.

The <a href="Sacred_tree" title="Sacred tree">sacred tree</a> of <a href="Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> is the oak,<a href="#cite_note-Philpot-28">[28]</a> and the one at <a href="Dodona" title="Dodona">Dodona</a> (famous for the cultic worship of Zeus and the oak) was said by later tradition to have its roots furrow so deep as to reach the confines of Tartarus.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a>

In a different cosmogonic account presented by <a href="Pherecydes_of_Syros#Reconstruction" title="Pherecydes of Syros">Pherecydes of Syros</a>, male deity Zas (identified as <a href="Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>) marries female divinity Chthonie (associated with the earth and later called Gê/<a href="Gaia" title="Gaia">Gaia</a>), and from their marriage sprouts an oak tree. This oak tree connects the heavens above and its roots grew into the Earth, to reach the depths of <a href="Tartarus" title="Tartarus">Tartarus</a>. This oak tree is considered by scholarship to symbolize a cosmic tree, uniting three spheres: underworld, terrestrial and celestial.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_trees">Other trees</h4></div>

Besides the oak, several other <a href="Trees_in_mythology" title="Trees in mythology">sacred trees</a> existed in <a href="Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>. For instance, the <a href="Olive" title="Olive">olive</a>, named <a href="Moria_(tree)" title="Moria (tree)">Moriai</a>, was the world tree and associated with the <a href="Twelve_Olympians" title="Twelve Olympians">Olympian goddess</a> <a href="Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a>.

In a separate Greek myth the <a href="Hesperides" title="Hesperides">Hesperides</a> live beneath an <a href="Apple_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Apple tree">apple tree</a> with <a href="Golden_apple" title="Golden apple">golden apples</a> that was given to the highest Olympian goddess <a href="Hera" title="Hera">Hera</a> by the primal <a href="Mother_goddess" title="Mother goddess">Mother goddess</a> <a href="Gaia" title="Gaia">Gaia</a> at Hera's marriage to Zeus.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The tree stands in the <a href="Hesperides#The_Garden_of_the_Hesperides" title="Hesperides">Garden of the Hesperides</a> and is guarded by <a href="Ladon_(mythology)" title="Ladon (mythology)">Ladon</a>, a dragon. <a href="Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> defeats Ladon and snatches the golden apples.

In the epic quest for the <a href="Golden_Fleece" title="Golden Fleece">Golden Fleece</a> of <a href="Argonautica" title="Argonautica">Argonautica</a>, the object of the quest is found in the realm of <a href="Colchis" title="Colchis">Colchis</a>, hanging on a tree guarded by a never-sleeping dragon (the <a href="Dragons_in_Greek_mythology#The_Colchian_dragon" title="Dragons in Greek mythology">Colchian dragon</a>).<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> In a version of the story provided by Pseudo-Apollodorus in Bibliotheca, the Golden Fleece was affixed by King <a href="Aeetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeetes">Aeetes</a> to an oak tree in a grove dedicated to war god <a href="Ares" title="Ares">Ares</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> This information is repeated in <a href="Valerius_Flaccus_(poet)" title="Valerius Flaccus (poet)">Valerius Flaccus</a>'s Argonautica.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In the same passage of Valerius Flaccus' work, King Aeetes prays to Ares for a sign and suddenly a "serpent gliding from the Caucasus mountains" appears and coils around the grove as to protect it.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_mythology">Roman mythology</h3></div>

In <a href="Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman mythology</a> the world tree was the <a href="Olive_branch#Ancient_Greece_and_Rome" title="Olive branch">olive tree</a>, that was associated with <a href="Pax_(goddess)" title="Pax (goddess)">Pax</a>. The Greek equivalent of Pax is <a href="Eirene_(goddess)" title="Eirene (goddess)">Eirene</a>, one of the <a href="Horae" title="Horae">Horae</a>. The Sacred tree of the Roman <a href="Sky_father" title="Sky father">Sky father</a> <a href="Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a> was the <a href="Oak" title="Oak">oak</a>, the <a href="Laurus_nobilis" title="Laurus nobilis">laurel</a> was the Sacred tree of <a href="Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a>. The ancient <a href="Ficus_Ruminalis" title="Ficus Ruminalis">fig-tree</a> in the <a href="Comitium" title="Comitium">Comitium</a> at Rome, was considered as a descendant of the very tree under which <a href="Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a> were found.<a href="#cite_note-Philpot-28">[28]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norse_mythology">Norse mythology</h3></div>

In <a href="Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a>, <a href="Yggdrasil" title="Yggdrasil">Yggdrasil</a> is the world tree.<a href="#cite_note-Kuperjanov2002-10">[10]</a> Yggdrasil is attested in the <a href="Poetic_Edda" title="Poetic Edda">Poetic Edda</a>, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the <a href="Prose_Edda" title="Prose Edda">Prose Edda</a>, written in the 13th century by <a href="Snorri_Sturluson" title="Snorri Sturluson">Snorri Sturluson</a>. In both sources, Yggdrasil is an immense <a href="Fraxinus_excelsior" title="Fraxinus excelsior">ash tree</a> that is central and considered very holy. The <a href="%C3%86sir" title="Æsir">Æsir</a> go to Yggdrasil daily to hold their courts. The branches of Yggdrasil extend far into the heavens, and the tree is supported by three roots that extend far away into other locations: one to the well <a href="Ur%C3%B0arbrunnr" title="Urðarbrunnr">Urðarbrunnr</a> in the heavens, one to the spring <a href="Hvergelmir" title="Hvergelmir">Hvergelmir</a>, and another to the well <a href="M%C3%ADmisbrunnr" title="Mímisbrunnr">Mímisbrunnr</a>. Creatures live within Yggdrasil, including the <a href="Deer" title="Deer">harts</a> <a href="D%C3%A1inn%2C_Dvalinn%2C_Duneyrr_and_Dura%C3%BEr%C3%B3r" title="Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr and Duraþrór">Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr and Duraþrór</a>, the giant in eagle-shape <a href="Hr%C3%A6svelgr" title="Hræsvelgr">Hræsvelgr</a>, the squirrel <a href="Ratatoskr" title="Ratatoskr">Ratatoskr</a> and the <a href="Norse_dragon" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse dragon">wyrm</a> <a href="N%C3%AD%C3%B0h%C3%B6ggr" title="Níðhöggr">Níðhöggr</a>. Scholarly theories have been proposed about the etymology of the name Yggdrasil, the potential relation to the trees <a href="M%C3%ADmamei%C3%B0r" title="Mímameiðr">Mímameiðr</a> and <a href="L%C3%A6ra%C3%B0r" title="Læraðr">Læraðr</a>, and the <a href="Sacred_tree_at_Uppsala" title="Sacred tree at Uppsala">sacred tree at Uppsala</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Circumbaltic_mythology">Circumbaltic mythology</h3></div>

In <a href="Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a>, <a href="Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a> and <a href="Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a> mythology, the world tree is usually an <a href="Oak" title="Oak">oak</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kuperjanov2002-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[a]</a> Most of the images of the world tree are preserved on ancient ornaments. Often on the Baltic and Slavic patterns there was an image of an inverted tree, "growing with its roots up, and branches going into the ground".

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Baltic_beliefs">Baltic beliefs</h4></div>

Scholarship recognizes that Baltic beliefs about a World Tree, located at the central part of the Earth, follow a tripartite division of the cosmos (underworld, earth, sky), each part corresponding to a part of the tree (root, trunk, branches).<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Běťáková,_Marta_Eva_2012._p._178-39">[38]</a>

It has been suggested that the word for "tree" in <a href="Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic languages</a> (<a href="Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a> medis; in <a href="Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian</a> "tree" is koks, but "forest" is mežs), both derived from <a href="Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a> *medh- 'middle', operated a semantic shift from "middle" possibly due to the belief of the Arbor Mundi.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Lithuanian_culture">Lithuanian culture</h5></div>

The world tree (<a href="Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: Aušros medis) is widespread in Lithuanian folk painting, and is frequently found carved into household furniture such as cupboards, towel holders, and laundry beaters.<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> According to Lithuanian scholars Prane Dunduliene and <a href="Norbertas_V%C4%97lius" title="Norbertas Vėlius">Norbertas Vėlius</a>, the World Tree is "a powerful tree with widespread branches and strong roots, reaching deep into the earth". The recurrent imagery is also present in Lithuanian myth: on the treetops, the luminaries and eagles, and further down, amidst its roots, the dwelling place of snakes and reptiles.<a href="#cite_note-Straižys,_Vytautas_1997-9">[9]</a> The World Tree of Lithuanian tradition was sometimes identified as an oak or a <a href="Maple_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Maple tree">maple tree</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Běťáková,_Marta_Eva_2012._p._178-39">[38]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Latvian_culture">Latvian culture</h5></div>

In <a href="Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian mythology</a> the world tree (<a href="Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian</a>: Austras koks) was one of the most important beliefs, also associated with the birth of the world. Sometimes it was identified as an oak or a <a href="Birch" title="Birch">birch</a>, or even replaced by a wooden pole.<a href="#cite_note-Běťáková,_Marta_Eva_2012._p._178-39">[38]</a> According to Ludvigs Adamovičs's book on Latvian folk belief, ancient Latvian mythology attested the existence of a Sun Tree as an expression of the World Tree, often described as "a birch tree with three leaves or forked branches where the Sun, the Moon, God, Laima, Auseklis (the morning star), or the daughter of the Sun rest[ed]".<a href="#cite_note-Kencis2011-44">[43]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Slavic_beliefs">Slavic beliefs</h4></div>

According to Slavic folklore, as reconstructed by <a href="Radoslav_Kati%C4%8Di%C4%87" title="Radoslav Katičić">Radoslav Katičić</a>, the draconic or serpentine character furrows near a body of water, and the bird that lives on the treetop could be an eagle, a falcon or a nightingale.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a>

Scholars Ivanov and Toporov offered a reconstructed Slavic variant of the Indo-European myth about a <a href="Proto-Indo-European_mythology#Serpent-slaying_myth" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">battle between a Thunder God and a snake-like adversary</a>. In their proposed reconstruction, the Snake lives under the World Tree, sleeping on black wool. They surmise this snake on black wool is a reference to a cattle god, known in <a href="Slavic_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic mythology">Slavic mythology</a> as <a href="Veles_(god)" title="Veles (god)">Veles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a>

Further studies show that the usual tree that appears in Slavic folklore is an oak: for instance, in <a href="Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>, it is known as Veledub ('The Great Oak').<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a>

In addition, the world tree appears in the Island of <a href="Buyan" title="Buyan">Buyan</a>, on top of a stone. Another description shows that legendary birds <a href="Sirin" title="Sirin">Sirin</a> and <a href="Alkonost" title="Alkonost">Alkonost</a> make their nests on separate sides of the tree.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a>

Ukrainian scholarship points to the existence of the motif in "archaic wintertime songs and carols": their texts attest a tree at the center of the world and two or three falcons or pigeons sat on its top, ready to dive in and fetch mud to create land (the <a href="Earth_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth diver">Earth diver</a> cosmogonic motif).<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a>

The imagery of the world tree also appears in folk medicine of the <a href="Don_Cossacks" title="Don Cossacks">Don Cossacks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Finnic_mythology">Finnic mythology</h4></div>

According to scholar <a href="Aado_Lintrop" title="Aado Lintrop">Aado Lintrop</a>, <a href="Estonian_mythology" title="Estonian mythology">Estonian mythology</a> records two types of world tree in Estonian runic songs, with similar characteristics of being an oak and having a bird at the top, a snake at the roots and the stars amongst its branches.<a href="#cite_note-Kuperjanov2002-10">[10]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judeo-Christian_mythology">Judeo-Christian mythology</h3></div>

The <a href="Tree_of_the_knowledge_of_good_and_evil" title="Tree of the knowledge of good and evil">Tree of the knowledge of good and evil</a> and the <a href="Tree_of_life_(biblical)" title="Tree of life (biblical)">Tree of life</a> are both components of the <a href="Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Garden of Eden</a> story in the <a href="Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a> in the <a href="Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>. According to <a href="Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Jewish mythology</a>, in the <a href="Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Garden of Eden</a> there is a tree of life or the "tree of souls" that blossoms and produces new <a href="Souls" class="mw-redirect" title="Souls">souls</a>, which fall into the <a href="Guf" title="Guf">Guf</a>, the Treasury of Souls.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> The Angel <a href="Gabriel" title="Gabriel">Gabriel</a> reaches into the treasury and takes out the first soul that comes into his hand. Then <a href="Lailah" class="mw-redirect" title="Lailah">Lailah</a>, the Angel of Conception, watches over the embryo until it is born.<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam">Islam</h3></div>

A tree that is grown in the depth of hell is mentioned in the Quran, Surrat As-Saffat (64), called Zaqqum tree, zaqqum literllary means "poisonous food" or "poisonous nourishment".

"Is this bliss a better accommodation or the tree of Zaqqum (62) We have surely made it a test for the wrongdoers (63) Indeed, it is a tree that grows in the depths of Hell (64) bearing fruit like devils’ heads (65)"

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</h3></div>

According to the <a href="Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnostic</a> codex <a href="On_the_Origin_of_the_World" title="On the Origin of the World">On the Origin of the World</a>, the tree of immortal life is in the north of <a href="Paradise" title="Paradise">paradise</a>, which is outside the circuit of the Sun and Moon in the luxuriant Earth. Its height is so great it reaches Heaven. Its leaves are described as resembling <a href="Cypress" title="Cypress">cypress</a>, the color of the tree is like the Sun, its fruit is like clusters of white grapes and its branches are beautiful. The tree will provide life for the innocent during the <a href="Eschatology" title="Eschatology">consummation of the age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a>

<a href="List_of_Mandaean_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Mandaean texts">Mandaean scrolls</a> often include abstract illustrations of world trees that represent the living, interconnected nature of the cosmos.<a href="#cite_note-Nasoraia_2021-55">[54]</a> In <a href="Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a>, the <a href="Date_palm" title="Date palm">date palm</a> (<a href="Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a>: sindirka) symbolizes the cosmic tree and is often associated with the cosmic wellspring (<a href="Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a>: aina). The date palm and wellspring are often mentioned together as heavenly symbols in <a href="Mandaean_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandaean texts">Mandaean texts</a>. The date palm takes on masculine symbolism, while the wellspring takes on feminine symbolism.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armenian_mythology">Armenian mythology</h3></div>

Armenian professor Hrach Martirosyan argues for the presence, in <a href="Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian mythology</a>, of a serpentine creature named Andndayin ōj, that lives in the (abyssal) waters that circundate the World Tree.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Georgian_mythology">Georgian mythology</h3></div>

According to scholarship, <a href="Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian mythology</a> also attests a rivalry between mythical bird Paskunji, which lives in the underworld on the top of a tree, and a snake that menaces its nestlings.<a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hittite_culture">Hittite culture</h3></div>

A similar imagery is attested in <a href="Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite literature</a>: a snake encircles the base of a tree, an eagle perches atop it, and a bee occupies its middle,<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> which <a href="Craig_Melchert" title="Craig Melchert">Craig Melchert</a> considers to be a version of the "world tree" or "tree of life" motif.<a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesopotamian_traditions">Mesopotamian traditions</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sumerian_culture">Sumerian culture</h4></div>

Professor Amar Annus states that, although the motif seems to originate much earlier, its first attestation in world culture occurred in <a href="Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a>, with the tale of "<a href="Gilgamesh%2C_Enkidu%2C_and_the_Netherworld" title="Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld">Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Annus2009-2">[2]</a> According to this tale, goddess Innana transplants the <a href="Inanna#The_huluppu_tree" title="Inanna">huluppu tree</a> to her garden in the City of Uruk, for she intends to use its wood to carve a throne. However, a snake "with no charm", a ghostly figure (<a href="Lilith" title="Lilith">Lilith</a> or <a href="Lilu_(mythology)" title="Lilu (mythology)">another character</a> associated with darkness) and the legendary <a href="Anz%C3%BB" title="Anzû">Anzû</a>-bird make their residence on the tree, until Gilgamesh kills the serpent and the other residents escape.<a href="#cite_note-Annus2009-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lintrop2001-4">[4]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Akkadian_literature">Akkadian literature</h4></div>

In fragments of the story of <a href="Etana" title="Etana">Etana</a>, there is a narrative sequence about a snake and an eagle that live on opposite sides of a poplar tree (şarbatu), the snake on its roots, the eagle on its foliage. At a certain point, both animals swear before deity <a href="Shamash" title="Shamash">Shamash</a> and share their meat with each other, until the eagle's hatchlings are born and the eagle decides to eat the snake's young ones. In revenge, the snake alerts god Shamash, who agrees to let the snake punish the eagle for the perceived affront. Later, Shamash takes pity on the bird's condition and sets hero Etana to release it from its punishment. Later versions of the story associate the eagle with mythical bird <a href="Anz%C3%BB" title="Anzû">Anzû</a> and the snake with a serpentine being named <a href="Ba%C5%A1mu" title="Bašmu">Bašmu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iranian_mythology">Iranian mythology</h3></div>

A world tree is a common motif in <a href="Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian mythology</a>, the legendary bird <a href="Simurgh" title="Simurgh">Simurgh</a> (alternatively, Saēna bird; Sēnmurw and Senmurv) perches atop a tree in the center of the sea <a href="Vourukasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vourukasha">Vourukasa</a>. This tree is described as having all-healing properties and many seeds.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> In another account, the tree is the very same tree of the White Hōm (Haōma).<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> <a href="Gaokerena" title="Gaokerena">Gaokerena</a> or white <a href="Haoma" title="Haoma">Haoma</a> is a tree whose vivacity ensures continued life in the universe,<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a> and grants immortality to "all who eat from it". In the <a href="Pahlavi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahlavi language">Pahlavi</a> <a href="Bundahishn" title="Bundahishn">Bundahishn</a>, it is said that evil god <a href="Ahriman" title="Ahriman">Ahriman</a> created a lizard to attack the tree.<a href="#cite_note-Norelius2016-14">[14]</a>

Bas tokhmak is another remedial tree; it retains all herbal seeds and destroys sorrow.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hinduism_and_Indian_religions">Hinduism and Indian religions</h3></div>

Remnants are also evident in the <a href="Kalpavriksha" title="Kalpavriksha">Kalpavriksha</a> ("wish-fulfilling tree") and the <a href="Ashvattha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashvattha">Ashvattha</a> tree of the <a href="Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a>. The Ashvattha tree ('keeper of horses') is described as a <a href="Sacred_fig" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred fig">sacred fig</a> and corresponds to "the most typical representation of the world

tree in India", upon whose branches the celestial bodies rest.<a href="#cite_note-Lintrop2001-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Norelius2016-14">[14]</a> Likewise, the Kalpavriksha is also equated with a fig tree and said to possess wish-granting abilities.<a href="#cite_note-The_Tree_of_Life_in_Indo-European_a-12">[12]</a>

Indologist <a href="David_Dean_Shulman" title="David Dean Shulman">David Dean Shulman</a> provided the description of a similar imagery that appears in <a href="South_India" title="South India">South Indian</a> <a href="Dravidian_architecture" title="Dravidian architecture">temples</a>: the <a href="Sthala_Vriksha" title="Sthala Vriksha">sthalavṛkṣa</a> tree. The tree is depicted alongside a water source (river, temple tank, sea). The tree may also appear rooted on Earth or reaching the realm of <a href="Patala" title="Patala">Patala</a> (a netherworld where the <a href="N%C4%81ga" title="Nāga">Nāga</a> dwell), or in an inverted position, rooted in the Heavens. Like other accounts, this tree may also function as an axis mundi.<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Asian_and_Siberian_cultures">North Asian and Siberian cultures</h3></div>

The world tree is also represented in the mythologies and <a href="Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a> of <a href="North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a> and <a href="Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. According to Mihály Hoppál, Hungarian scholar Vilmos Diószegi located some motifs related to the world tree in <a href="Siberian_shamanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Siberian shamanism">Siberian shamanism</a> and other <a href="North_Asian" class="mw-redirect" title="North Asian">North Asian</a> peoples. As per Diószegi's research, the "bird-peaked" tree holds the sun and the moon, and the underworld is "a land of snakes, lizards and frogs".<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a>

In the mythology of the <a href="Samoyedic_peoples" title="Samoyedic peoples">Samoyeds</a>, the world tree connects different realities (underworld, this world, upper world) together. In their mythology the world tree is also the symbol of <a href="Mother_Nature" title="Mother Nature">Mother Earth</a> who is said to give the Samoyed <a href="Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shaman</a> his drum and also help him travel from one world to another. According to scholar Aado Lintrop, the <a href="Larch" title="Larch">larch</a> is "often regarded" by <a href="Siberian_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Siberian peoples">Siberian peoples</a> as the World Tree.<a href="#cite_note-Lintrop2001-4">[4]</a>

Scholar Aado Lintrop also noted the resemblance between an account of the World Tree from the <a href="Yakuts" title="Yakuts">Yakuts</a> and a <a href="Mokshas" title="Mokshas">Moksha-Mordvinic</a> folk song (described as a great <a href="Birch" title="Birch">birch</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Lintrop2001-4">[4]</a>

The imagery of the world tree, its roots burrowing underground, its branches reaching upward, the luminaries in its branches is also present in the mythology of <a href="Finno-Ugric_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Finno-Ugric peoples">Finno-Ugric peoples</a> from Northern Asia, such as the <a href="Khanty" title="Khanty">Khanty</a> and the <a href="Mansi_people" title="Mansi people">Mansi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongolic_and_Turkic_folk_beliefs">Mongolic and Turkic folk beliefs</h3></div>

The symbol of the world tree is also common in <a href="Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a>, an ancient religion of <a href="Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> and <a href="Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a>. The world tree is sometimes a <a href="Beech" title="Beech">beech</a>,<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> a <a href="Birch" title="Birch">birch</a>, or a poplar in epic works.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a>

Scholarship points out the presence of the motif in Central Asian and North Eurasian epic tradition: a world tree named Bai-Terek in Altai and Kyrgyz epics; a "sacred tree with nine branches" in the Buryat epic.<a href="#cite_note-Pavlova2018-75">[74]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Turkic_cultures">Turkic cultures</h4></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Bai-Terek">Bai-Terek</h5></div>

The Bai-Terek (also known as bayterek, beyterek, beğterek, begterek, begtereg),<a href="#cite_note-Dochu2017-76">[75]</a> found, for instance, in the Altai Maadai Kara epos, can be translated as "Golden <a href="Populus" title="Populus">Poplar</a>".<a href="#cite_note-himalayanresearch.org-77">[76]</a> Like the mythological description, each part of tree (top, trunk and root) corresponds to the three layers of reality: heavenly, earthly and underground. In one description, it is considered the axis mundi. It holds at the top "a nest of a double-headed eagle that watches over the different parts of the world" and, in the form of a snake, <a href="Erlik" title="Erlik">Erlik</a>, deity of the underworld, tries to slither up the tree to steal an egg from the nest.<a href="#cite_note-Dochu2017-76">[75]</a> In another, the tree holds two gold cuckoos at the topmost branches and two golden eagles just below. At the roots there are two dogs that guard the passage between the underworld and the world of the living.<a href="#cite_note-himalayanresearch.org-77">[76]</a>

Among the <a href="Yakut_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakut people">Yakuts</a>, the world tree (or sacred tree) is called Ál Lúk Mas (Aal Luuk Mas) and is attested in their <a href="Olonkho" title="Olonkho">Olonkho</a> epic narratives. Furthermore, this sacred tree is described to "connect the three worlds (Upper, Middle and Lower)", the branches to the sky and the roots to the underworld.<a href="#cite_note-Pavlova2018-75">[74]</a> Further studies show that this sacred tree also shows many alternate names and descriptions in different regional traditions.<a href="#cite_note-Pavlova2018-75">[74]</a> According to scholarship, the prevalent animal at the top of the tree in the Olonkho is the <a href="Eagle" title="Eagle">eagle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a>

Researcher Galina Popova emphasizes that the motif of the world tree offers a binary opposition between two different realms (the Upper Realm and the Underworld), and Aal Luuk Mas functions as a link between both.<a href="#cite_note-ПОПОВА_2019-79">[78]</a> A spirit or goddess of the earth, named Aan Alahchin Hotun, is also said to inhabit or live in the trunk of Aal Luuk Mas.<a href="#cite_note-ПОПОВА_2019-79">[78]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Bashkir">Bashkir</h5></div>

According to scholarship, in the <a href="Bashkirs" title="Bashkirs">Bashkir</a> epic <a href="Ural-batyr" title="Ural-batyr">Ural-batyr</a>, deity Samrau is described as a celestial being married to female deities of the Sun and the Moon. He is also "The King of the Birds" and is opposed by the "dark forces" of the universe, which live in the underworld. A similarly named creature, the bird Samrigush, appears in Bashkir folktales living atop the tallest tree in the world and its enemy is a snake named Azhdakha.<a href="#cite_note-cyberleninka.ru-80">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a> After the human hero kills the serpent Azhdakha, the grateful Samrigush agrees to carry him back to the world of light.<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Kazakh">Kazakh</h5></div>

Scholarship points to the existence of a bird named Samurik (Samruk) that, according to <a href="Kazakhs" title="Kazakhs">Kazakh</a> myth, lives atop the World Tree Baiterek. Likewise, in Kazakh folktales, it is also the hero's carrier out of the underworld, after he defeats a dragon named Aydakhara or Aydarhana.<a href="#cite_note-cyberleninka.ru-80">[79]</a> In the same vein, Kazakh literary critic and folklorist Seyt Kaskabasov described that the Samruk bird travels between the three spheres of the universe, nests atop the "cosmic tree" (bәyterek) and helps the hero out of the underworld.<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Other_representations">Other representations</h5></div>

An early 20th-century report on Altaian shamanism by researcher Karunovskaia describes a shamanistic journey, information provided by one Kondratii Tanashev (or Merej Tanas). However, A. A. Znamenski believes this material is not universal to all Altaian peoples, but pertains to the specific worldview of Tanashev's Tangdy clan. Regardless, the material showed a belief in a tripartite division of the world in sky (heavenly sphere), middle world and underworld; in the central part of the world, a mountain (Ak toson altaj sip') is located. Upon this mountain there is "a navel of the earth and water ... which also serves as the root of the 'wonderful tree with golden branches and wide leaves' (Altyn byrly bai terek)". Like the iconic imagery, the tree branches out to reach the heavenly sphere.<a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mongolic_cultures">Mongolic cultures</h4></div>

Finnish folklorist <a href="Uno_Holmberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Uno Holmberg">Uno Holmberg</a> reported a tale from the <a href="Kalmuck" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalmuck">Kalmuck</a> people about a dragon that lies in the sea, at the foot of a Zambu tree. In the <a href="Buryat_language" title="Buryat language">Buryat</a> poems, near the root of the tree a snake named Abyrga dwells.<a href="#cite_note-Holmberg,_Uno_1927_p._357-85">[84]</a> He also reported a "Central Asian" narrative about the fight between the snake Abyrga and a bird named Garide – which he identified as a version of Indian <a href="Garuda" title="Garuda">Garuda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Holmberg,_Uno_1927_p._357-85">[84]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Korea">Korea</h4></div>

The world tree is visible in the designs of the <a href="Crown_of_Silla" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of Silla">Crown of Silla</a>, <a href="Silla" title="Silla">Silla</a> being one of the <a href="Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea" title="Three Kingdoms of Korea">Three Kingdoms of Korea</a>. This link is used to establish a connection between Siberian peoples and those of <a href="Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4></div>

In Chinese mythology, a manifestation of the world tree is the <a href="Fusang" title="Fusang">Fusang</a> or Fumu tree.<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> In a Chinese cosmogonic myth, solar deity <a href="Xihe_(deity)" title="Xihe (deity)">Xihe</a> gives birth to ten suns. Each of the suns rests upon a tree named Fusang (possibly a mulberry tree). The ten suns alternate during the day, each carried by a crow (the "<a href="Three-legged_crow" title="Three-legged crow">Crow of the Sun</a>"): one sun stays on the top branch to wait its turn, while the other nine suns rest on the lower branches.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tanzania">Tanzania</h3></div>

An origin myth is recorded from the Wapangwa tribe of <a href="Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, wherein the world is created through "a primordial tree and a termite mound".<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> As a continuation of the same tale, the animals wanted to eat the fruits of this Tree of Life, but humans intended to defend it. This led to a war between animals and humans.<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kenya">Kenya</h3></div>

In the agikuyu community, the "mūgumo" tree is held sacred and it is a taboo to even fetch firewood from it. In the past, the tree served as an altar to offer sacrifices as well as being a place of prayer. If a mùgumo tree falls, it is believed to be an end of an era for a "god"/dynasty and a ritual should be done by elders to cleanse the area and the community because it might be a bad omen.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_folk_and_fairy_tales">In folk and fairy tales</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ATU_301:_The_Three_Stolen_Princesses">ATU 301: The Three Stolen Princesses</h3></div>

The imagery of the World Tree appears in a specific tale type of the <a href="Aarne-Thompson-Uther_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index">Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index</a>, type ATU 301, "The Three Stolen Princesses", and former subtypes AaTh 301A, "Quest for a Vanished Princess" (or "Three Underground Kingdoms") and AaTh 301B, "The Strong Man and His Companions" (<a href="Jean_de_l'Ours" title="Jean de l'Ours">Jean de l'Ours</a> and <a href="Feh%C3%A9rl%C3%B3fia_(Hungarian_folk_tale)" title="Fehérlófia (Hungarian folk tale)">Fehérlófia</a>). The hero journeys alone to the underworld (or a subterranean realm) to rescue three princesses. He leads them to a rope that will take them to the surface and, when the hero tries to climb up the rope, his companions cut it and the hero is stranded in the underworld. In his wanderings, he comes across a tree, on its top a nest of eggs from an eagle, a griffin or a mythical bird. The hero protects the nest from a snake enemy that slithers from the roots of the tree.<a href="#cite_note-Kencis2011-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a>

Serbian scholarship recalls a Serbian mythical story about three brothers, named Ноћило, Поноћило и Зорило ("Noćilo, Ponoćilo and Zorilo") and their mission to rescue the king's daughters. Zorilo goes down the cave, rescues three princesses and with a whip changes their palaces into apples. When Zorilo is ready to go up, his brothers abandon him in the cave, but he escapes with the help of a bird.<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> Serbian scholar Pavle Sofric (<a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%9B_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%99%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD" class="extiw external" title="sr:Павле Софрић Нишевљанин">sr</a>), in his book about Serbian folkmyths about trees, noted that the tree of the tale, an <a href="Ash_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash tree">ash tree</a> (<a href="Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a>: јасен), showed a great parallel to the <a href="Yggdrasil" title="Yggdrasil">Nordic tree</a> as not to be coincidental.<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a>

While comparing Balkanic variants of the tale type ATU 301, researcher <a href="Milena_Benovska-Sabkova" title="Milena Benovska-Sabkova">Milena Benovska-Sabkova</a> noticed that the conflict between the snake and the eagle (bird) on the tree "was very close to the classical imagery of the World Tree".<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_fairy_tales">Other fairy tales</h3></div>

According to scholarship, Hungarian scholar János Berze Nágy also associated the imagery of the World Tree with fairy tales wherein a mysterious thief comes at night to steal the <a href="Golden_apple" title="Golden apple">golden apples</a> of the king's prized tree.<a href="#cite_note-core.ac.uk-96">[95]</a> This incident occurs as an alternative opening to tale type ATU 301, in a group of tales formerly classified as AaTh 301A,<a href="#cite_note-98">[b]</a> and as the opening episode in most variants of tale type ATU 550, "Bird, Horse and Princess" (otherwise known as <a href="The_Golden_Bird" title="The Golden Bird">The Golden Bird</a>).<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a>

Likewise, historical linguist <a href="V%C3%A1clav_Bla%C5%BEek" title="Václav Blažek">Václav Blažek</a> argued for parallels of certain motifs of these fairy tales (the night watch of the heroes, the golden apples, the avian thief) to <a href="Ossetian_language" title="Ossetian language">Ossetian</a> <a href="Nart_saga" title="Nart saga">Nart sagas</a> and the Greek myth of the <a href="Garden_of_the_Hesperides" class="mw-redirect" title="Garden of the Hesperides">Garden of the Hesperides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> The avian thief may also be a princess cursed into bird form, such as in Hungarian tale Prince Árgyilus (<a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rg%C3%ADrus" class="extiw external" title="hu:Árgírus">hu</a>) and Fairy Ilona<a href="#cite_note-core.ac.uk-96">[95]</a> and in Serbian tale <a href="The_Nine_Peahens_and_the_Golden_Apples" title="The Nine Peahens and the Golden Apples">The Nine Peahens and the Golden Apples</a> (both classified as ATU 400, "The Man on a Quest for the Lost Wife").<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> This second type of opening episode was identified by Romanian folklorist <a href="Marcu_Beza" title="Marcu Beza">Marcu Beza</a> as another introduction to <a href="Swan_maiden" title="Swan maiden">swan maiden</a> tales.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="It's_a_Big_Big_World" title="It's a Big Big World">It's a Big Big World</a>, TV-series which takes place at a location called the "World Tree"</li>

<li><a href="Potomitan" title="Potomitan">Potomitan</a></li>

<li><a href="Rehue" title="Rehue">Rehue</a></li>

<li><a href="Sidrat_al-Muntaha" title="Sidrat al-Muntaha">Sidrat al-Muntaha</a></li>

<li><a href="Tree_of_life_(Quran)" title="Tree of life (Quran)">Tree of life (Quran)</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Fountain" title="The Fountain">The Fountain</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Lithuanian scholar Libertas Klimka (<a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertas_Klimka" class="extiw external" title="lt:Libertas Klimka">lt</a>) indicated that the oak was considered a sacred tree to pre-Christian Baltic religion, including being a tree associated to thunder god Perkunas.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> The third revision of the Aarne-Thompson classification system, made in 2004 by German folklorist <a href="Hans-J%C3%B6rg_Uther" title="Hans-Jörg Uther">Hans-Jörg Uther</a>, subsumed both subtypes AaTh 301A and AaTh 301B into the new type ATU 301.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation book cs1">Farnah : Indo-Iranian and Indo-European studies in honor of Sasha Lubotsky. Lucien van Beek, Alwin Kloekhorst, Guus Kroonen, Michaël Peyrot, Tijmen Pronk, Michile de Vaan. Ann Arbor: Beech Stave Press. 2018. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-9895142-4-8</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1104878206">1104878206</a>.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (link)

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<li id="cite_note-Crews2003-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crews2003_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crews2003_3-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFCrews2003" class="citation journal cs1">Crews, Judith (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fao.org/3/y9882e/y9882e08.htm">"Forest and tree symbolism in folklore"</a>. Unasylva (213): 37–43. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/210755951">210755951</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Lintrop2001-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lintrop2001_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lintrop2001_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lintrop2001_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lintrop2001_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lintrop2001_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lintrop2001_4-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lintrop2001_4-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lintrop2001_4-7">h</a> <cite id="CITEREFLintrop2001" class="citation journal cs1">Lintrop, Aado (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7592%2FFEJF2001.16.oak2">"The Great Oak and Brother-Sister"</a>. Folklore. 16: 35–58. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7592%2FFEJF2001.16.oak2">10.7592/FEJF2001.16.oak2</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Toporov_1990_46–63_48-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Toporov_1990_46–63_48_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toporov_1990_46–63_48_5-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFToporov1990" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Vladimir_Toporov" title="Vladimir Toporov">Toporov, V.</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=772269">"The Thracian Horseman in an Indo-European Perspective"</a>. ORPHEUS. Journal of Indo-European and Thracian Studies. 18: 46–63 [48].</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-lituanistika.lt-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lituanistika.lt_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lituanistika.lt_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lituanistika.lt_6-2">c</a> Senkutė, Loreta. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lituanistika.lt/content/45631">Varuna "Rigvedoje" ir dievo įvaizdžio sąsajos su velniu baltų mitologijoje</a>" [God Varuna o f the Rigveda as related to images in ancient Baltic mythology]. In: Rytai-Vakarai: Komparatyvistinés Studijos XII. pp. 366–367. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9789955868552</bdi>.

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<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Usačiovaitė, Elvyra. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lituanistika.lt/content/5648">Gyvybės medžio simbolika Rytuose ir Vakaruose</a>" [Symbolism of the Tree of Life in the East and the West; Life tree symbols in the East and West]. In: Kultūrologija [Culturology]. 2005, t. 12, p. 313. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1822-2242">1822-2242</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFToporov1990" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Vladimir_Toporov" title="Vladimir Toporov">Toporov, V.</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=772269">"The Thracian Horseman in an Indo-European Perspective"</a>. ORPHEUS. Journal of Indo-European and Thracian Studies. 18: 46–63 [48]. <q>The top [of the World Tree] is correlated ... with celestial and astral symbols: the Sun and the Moon, usually placed symmetrically above the tree, on the right and on the left, less frequently stars.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Straižys,_Vytautas_1997-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Straižys,_Vytautas_1997_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Straižys,_Vytautas_1997_9-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFStraižysKlimka1997" class="citation journal cs1">Straižys, Vytautas; Klimka, Libertas (February 1997). "The Cosmology of the Ancient Balts". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 28 (22): S57 – S81. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182869702802207">10.1177/002182869702802207</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:117470993">117470993</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Kuperjanov2002-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kuperjanov2002_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kuperjanov2002_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kuperjanov2002_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kuperjanov2002_10-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFKuperjanov2002" class="citation journal cs1">Kuperjanov, Andres (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7592%2FFEJF2002.22.milkyway">"Names in Estonian Folk Astronomy - from 'Bird's Way' to 'Milky Way'"</a>. Folklore. 22: 49–61. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7592%2FFEJF2002.22.milkyway">10.7592/FEJF2002.22.milkyway</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-The_Tree_of_Life_in_Indo-European_a-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Tree_of_Life_in_Indo-European_a_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Tree_of_Life_in_Indo-European_a_12-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFLechler1937" class="citation journal cs1">Lechler, George (1937). "The Tree of Life in Indo-European and Islamic Cultures". Ars Islamica. 4: 369–419. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25167048">25167048</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Annus,_Amar_2015._pp._289-290-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Annus,_Amar_2015._pp._289-290_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Annus,_Amar_2015._pp._289-290_13-1">b</a> Annus, Amar & Sarv, Mari. "The Ball Game Motif in the Gilgamesh Tradition and International Folklore". In: Mesopotamia in the Ancient World: Impact, Continuities, Parallels. Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium of the Melammu Project Held in Obergurgl, Austria, November 4–8, 2013. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag – Buch- und Medienhandel GmbH. 2015. pp. 289–290. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-86835-128-6</bdi>.

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<li id="cite_note-Norelius2016-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Norelius2016_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norelius2016_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norelius2016_14-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFNorelius2016" class="citation journal cs1">Norelius, Per-Johan (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5617%2Fao.5356">"The Honey-Eating Birds and the Tree of Life: Notes on Ṛgveda 1.164.20–22"</a>. Acta Orientalia. 77: 3–70–3–70. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5617%2Fao.5356">10.5617/ao.5356</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:166166930">166166930</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> BLAŽEK, Václav. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/42649582/The_role_of_apple_in_the_Indo_European_mythological_tradition_and_in_neighboring_traditions">The Role of "Apple" in the Indo-European Mythological Tradition and in Neighboring Traditions</a>". In: Lisiecki, Marcin; Milne, Louise S.; Yanchevskaya, Nataliya. Power and Speech: Mythology of the Social and the Sacred. Toruń: EIKON, 2016. p. 184. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-83-64869-16-7</bdi>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBeza1925" class="citation journal cs1">Beza, M. (1925). "The Sacred Marriage in Roumanian Folklore". The Slavonic Review. 4 (11): 321–333. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4201965">4201965</a>.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2></div>

<ul><li>David Abram. The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-Than-Human World, Vintage, 1997</li>

<li><cite id="refBurkertW" class="citation book cs1">Burkert W (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nXjRg_3p1s4C">Creation of the Sacred: Tracks of Biology in Early Religions</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-674-17570-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="refHaycockDE" class="citation book cs1">Haycock DE (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fXFeQb1z6bsC">Being and Perceiving</a>. Manupod Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-9569621-0-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMillerTaube1993" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Mary Ellen; Taube, Karl A. (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. Thames and Hudson. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-500-05068-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li>Roys, Ralph L., The Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1967.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBalalaevaPluzhnikovFunkBatyanova2019" class="citation journal cs1">Balalaeva, O.; Pluzhnikov, N.; Funk, D.; Batyanova, E.; Dybo, A.; Bulgakova, T.; Burykin, A. (June 2019). "The Myth of the World Tree in the Shamanism of Siberian Peoples. Comments: Funk, D. A. In Search of the World Tree: Some Thoughts on What, Where, and How We Search [V poiskakh Mirovogo dreva: razmyshleniia o tom, chto, gde i kak my ishchem]; Batyanova, E. P. Trees, Shamans, and Other Worlds [Derev'ia, shamany i inye miry]; Dybo, A. V. The World Tree: Data from Siberian Languages [Mirovoe drevo: dannye sibirskikh yazykov]; Bulgakova, T. D. The "World Tree" in the Shamanic Image of the World among the Nanai ["Mirovoe drevo" v shamanskoi kartine mira nanaitsev]; Burykin, A. A. The "Shamanic Theater" and Its Attributes ["Shamanskii teatr" i ego atributy]; Balalaeva, O. E., and N. V. Pluzhnikov. Response to Commenters: Thinking about the Use of Discussions (One of the Keys) [Otvet opponentam: razmyshleniia o pol'ze diskussii (odin iz kliuchei)]". <a href="Etnograficheskoe_Obozrenie" title="Etnograficheskoe Obozrenie">Etnograficheskoe Obozrenie</a> (3): 80–122. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31857%2FS086954150005293-2">10.31857/S086954150005293-2</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBauks2012" class="citation journal cs1">Bauks, Michaela (6 May 2012). "Sacred Trees in the Garden of Eden and Their Ancient Near Eastern Precursors". <a href="Journal_of_Ancient_Judaism" title="Journal of Ancient Judaism">Journal of Ancient Judaism</a>. 3 (3): 267–301. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30965%2F21967954-00303001">10.30965/21967954-00303001</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Butterworth, E. A. S. The Tree - the Navel of the Earth. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1970.</li>

<li><a href="Uno_Harva" title="Uno Harva">Holmberg, Uno</a>. Der Baum des Lebens (= Suomalaisen Tiedeakatemian toimituksia. Sarja B = Series B, 16, 3, <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0066-2011">0066-2011</a>). Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, Helsinki, 1922 (Auch: Edition Amalia, Bern 1996, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-9520764-2-2</bdi>).</li></ul>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lithuanian.net/mitai/cosmos/baltai.htm">Cosmology of the Ancient Balts</a> by Vytautas Straižys and Libertas Klimka (Lithuanian.net)</li></ul>

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